ip address

Apa itu IP ADDRESS (INTERNET PROTOCOL ADDRESS)?

Internet Protocol (IP) adalah metode atau protokol untuk mengirimkan data ke Internet. Setiap komputer (biasanya disebuthost) dalam internet setidaknya harus mempunyai sebuah alamat IP yang unik yang mengidentifikasikan komputer tersebut terhadap komputer yang lainnya. Ketika anda mengirimkan atau menerima data (contoh : email atau website), pesan akan dibagi-bagi menjadi beberapa paket. Setiap paket berisikan IP pengirim dan IP penerima. Gateway yang menerimanya akan langsung mem-forward ke tujuan melalui jalur terbaik yang ditemukan sambil mengingat IP pengirim dan penerima. Karena pesan tersebut terbagi-bagi dalam paket dan bisa jadi diterima tidak secara berurutan di tujuan, IP tidak akan pernah memperhatikan, hanya mengirimkan saja. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) nantinya yang akan meletakkannya dalam urutan yang benar.

Storage

In a computer, storage is the place where data is held in an electromagnetic or optical form for access by a computer processor. There are two general usages.

1) Storage is frequently used to mean the devices and data connected to the computer through input/output operations - that is, hard disk and tape systems and other forms of storage that don't include computer memory and other in-computer storage. For the enterprise, the options for this kind of storage are of much greater variety and expense than that related to memory. This meaning is probably more common in the IT industry than meaning 2.

2) In a more formal usage, storage has been divided into: (1) primary storage, which holds data in memory (sometimes called random access memory or RAM

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) and other "built-in" devices such as the processor's L1 cache, and (2) secondary storage, which holds data on hard disks, tapes, and other devices requiring input/output operations.

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Primary storage is much faster to access than secondary storage because of the proximity of the storage to the processor or because of the nature of the storage devices. On the other hand, secondary storage can hold much more data than primary storage.

In addition to RAM, primary storage includes read-only memory (ROM) and L1 and L2 cachememory. In addition to hard disks, secondary storage includes a range of device types and technologies, including diskettes, Zip drives, redundant array of independent disks (RAID) systems, and holographic storage. Devices that hold storage are collectively known asstorage media.

A somewhat antiquated term for primary storage is main storage and a somewhat antiquated term for secondary storage is auxiliary storage. Note that, to add to the confusion, there is an additional meaning for primary storage that distinguishes actively used storage from backup storage.

motherboard

The main circuit board of a microcomputer. The motherboard contains theconnectors for attaching additional boards. Typically, the motherboard contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces, serial andparallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers required to control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, keyboard, and disk drive. Collectively, all these chips that reside on the motherboard are known as the motherboard's chipset.

On most PCs, it is possible to add memory chips directly to the motherboard. You may also be able to upgrade to a faster PC by replacing the CPU chip. To add additional core features, you may need to replace the motherboard entirely.

output device

Any peripheral that receives or displays output from a computer. In the picture to the right, is an inkjet printer and a good example of an output device that can make a hard copy of anything on a computer. Below is a listing of all the different computer output devices found on a computer.

Flat panel
Monitor
Printer
Projector
Sound card
Speakers
Video card
Also see: Input device, Input/output device, Output, Printer definitions, Video definitions

input device

An input device is any hardware device that sends data to the computer, without any input devices, a computer would only be a display device and not allow users to interact with it, much like a TV. In the picture to the right, is a Logitech trackball mouse and an example of an input device. Below is a complete listing of all the different computer input devices that can be used on a computer.

Types of input devices

Audio conversion device
Barcode reader
Business Card Reader
Digital camera / Digital Camcorder
Finger (with touchscreen)
Fingerprint scanner
Gamepad / Joystick / Paddle / Steering wheel / Microsoft Kinect
Graphics tablet
Keyboard
Light gun
Magnetic-stripe reader
Medical imaging devices (i.e. X-Ray, CAT Scan, and Ultrasound images)
Microphone (using speech recognition)
MIDI keyboard
Mouse, touchpad, or other pointing device
Remote
Scanner
Sonar imaging devices
Touch screen
Video capture device
VR helmet and gloves
Webcam
 Keep in mind that drives such as a CD-ROM, DVD, and a Floppy diskette drive may be capable of sending the computer information but they are not input devices. These devices are considered storage devices.

Computer crime and security threats

Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network.^[1] The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target.^[2] Netcrime refers to criminal exploitation of the Internet.^[3] Cybercrimes are defined as: "Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS)".^[4] Such crimes may threaten a nation’s security and financial health.^[5] Issues surrounding this type of crime have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding cracking, copyright infringement, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.

Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nationstate is sometimes referred to as cyber warfare. The international legal system is attempting to hold actors accountable for their actions through the International Criminal Court.^[6]

[EDIT]TOPOLOGY

Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities. Generally, however, it may be divided into two categories: (1) crimes that target computers directly; (2) crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the computer network or device.^{[citation needed]}

Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include:

• Computer viruses
• Denial-of-service attacks
• Malware (malicious code)

Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:

• Cyberstalking
• Fraud and identity theft
• Information warfare
• Phishing scams

[edit]Spam

Spam, or the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes, is unlawful in some jurisdictions. While anti-spam laws are relatively new, limits on unsolicited electronic communications have existed for some time.^[7]

[edit]Fraud

Main article: Computer fraud

Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss.^{[citation needed]} In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by:

• Altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized processes;
• Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized transactions: this is difficult to detect;
• Altering or deleting stored data;
• Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing code for fraudulent purposes.

Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank fraud, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified information.

A variety of Internet scams target consumers direct.

[edit]Obscene or offensive content

The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, obscene or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances these communications may be illegal.

Over 25 jurisdictions place limits on certain speech and ban racist, blasphemous, politically subversive, libelous or slanderous, seditious, or inflammatory material that tends to incite hate crimes.

The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.

One area of Internet pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography.

[edit]Harassment

Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see cyber bullying, cyber stalking, harassment by computer, hate crime, Online predator, andstalking). Any comment that may be found derogatory or offensive is considered harassment.

There are instances where committing a crime, which involves the use of a computer, can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of U.S. v. Neil Scott Kramer, Kramer was served an enhanced sentence according to the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual §2G1.3(b)(3)^[8] for his use of a cell phone to “persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct.”

[edit]Drug trafficking

Drug traffickers are increasingly taking advantage of the Internet to sell their illegal substances through encrypted e-mail and other Internet Technology. Some drug traffickers arrange deals at internet cafes, use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and swap recipes for amphetamines in restricted-access chat rooms.

The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to the lack of face-to-face communication. These virtual exchanges allow more intimidated individuals to more comfortably purchase illegal drugs. The sketchy effects that are often associated with drug trades are severely minimized and the filtering process that comes with physical interaction fades away.

[edit]Cyber terrorism

Government officials and Information Technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. But there is a growing concern among federal officials^[who?] that such intrusions are part of an organized effort bycyberterrorists, foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes in critical systems. A cyberterrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or organization to advance his or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based attack against computers, network, and the information stored on them.

Cyber terrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. As well there are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organized by groups within networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for ruining peoples' lives, robberies, blackmailing etc.

Cyberextortion is a form of cyberterrorism in which a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers, who demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, cyberextortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate and demanding payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI and many go unreported in order to keep the victim's name out of the domain. Perpetrators typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack.^[9]

Cyber warfare

Main article: Cyber warfare

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) notes that cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance. Among those are included the attack on Estonia's infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. "In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyber attacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states, the concept of cyberspace operations impacts and will be adapted by warfighting military commanders in the future.^[10]

Definisi Privasi

Privasi (dari Latin: privatus ". Dipisahkan dari yang lain, kekurangan sesuatu, esp pejabat, penyertaan dalam kerajaan", dari privo "untuk menafikan") adalah keupayaan individu atau kumpulan untuk memencilkan diri atau maklumat tentang diri mereka dan dengan itu mendedahkan diri mereka terpilih. Sempadan dan kandungan dari apa yang dianggap swasta berbeza antara budaya dan individu, tetapi berkongsi tema yang sama yang asas. Privasi ini kadang-kadang yang berkaitan untuk dikenali, ingin kekal tanpa disedari atau tidak dikenali dalam alam awam. Apabila sesuatu yang peribadi kepada seseorang, biasanya ia bermakna ada sesuatu dalam diri mereka yang dianggap memang khas atau peribadi sensitif. Ijazah yang maklumat peribadi terdedah itu bergantung kepada bagaimana orang ramai akan menerima maklumat ini, yang berbeza antara tempat dan dari masa ke masa. Privasi sebahagian bersilang keselamatan, termasuk misalnya konsep penggunaan yang sesuai, perlindungan serta maklumat.Hak yang tidak tertakluk kepada pencerobohan unsanctioned privasi oleh kerajaan, syarikat-syarikat atau individu adalah sebahagian daripada undang-undang privasi banyak negara, dan dalam sesetengah kes, perlembagaan. Hampir semua negara mempunyai undang-undang yang di sesetengah privasi had cara; contoh ini akan menjadi undang-undang berkaitan dengan cukai, yang biasanya memerlukan perkongsian maklumat tentang pendapatan atau pendapatan peribadi. Di sesetengah negara privasi individu mungkin bercanggah dengan kebebasan undang-undang pertuturan dan beberapa undang-undang mungkin memerlukan pendedahan umum maklumat yang akan dipertimbangkan swasta dalam negara dan budaya lain. Privasi secara sukarela boleh dikorbankan, biasanya dalam pertukaran untuk manfaat yang dilihat dan selalunya dengan bahaya dan kerugian khusus, walaupun ini adalah pandangan yang sangat strategik hubungan manusia. Ahli akademik yang pakar ekonomi, ahli teori evolusi, dan psikologi penyelidikan menjelaskan mendedahkan privasi sebagai 'pengorbanan sukarela', misalnya oleh peserta bersedia dalam loteri atau pertandingan. Dalam dunia perniagaan, seseorang boleh secara sukarela butir-butir peribadi (selalunya untuk tujuan pengiklanan) untuk berjudi memenangi hadiah. Maklumat peribadi yang dikongsi secara sukarela tetapi kemudiannya dicuri atau disalahgunakan boleh membawa kepada kecurian identiti.Privasi, sebagai istilah umumnya difahami di Barat, tidak adalah satu konsep yang universal dan tinggal tidak diketahui dalam beberapa budaya sehingga masa-masa kebelakangan ini. Kebanyakan budaya, bagaimanapun, mengiktiraf keupayaan individu untuk menahan bahagian-bahagian tertentu maklumat peribadi mereka daripada masyarakat yang lebih luas - satu figleaf atas kemaluan yang menjadi contoh purba.

DefinisiDalam tahun-tahun kebelakangan ini terdapat hanya beberapa percubaan untuk mentakrifkan dengan jelas dan tepat "hak untuk privasi." Sesetengah pakar menegaskan bahawa sebenarnya hak privasi "tidak harus ditakrifkan sebagai hak perundangan yang berasingan" pada semua. Dengan memberi alasan mereka, undang-undang yang sedia ada yang berkaitan dengan privasi umum hendaklah mencukupi. [15] pakar lain, seperti Dekan Prosser, telah cuba, tetapi gagal untuk mencari "titik persamaan" antara jenis utama kes privasi dalam sistem mahkamah , sekurang-kurangnya untuk merumuskan definisi. [15] Satu undang-undang sekolah risalat dari Israel, bagaimanapun, mengenai subjek "privasi dalam persekitaran digital," mencadangkan bahawa "hak privasi harus dilihat sebagai hak bebas yang memerlukan perlindungan undang-undang dengan sendirinya. " Oleh yang demikian, ia telah mencadangkan definisi bekerja untuk "hak privasi":Hak privasi adalah hak kami untuk mengekalkan domain di sekeliling kita, yang merangkumi semua perkara-perkara yang merupakan sebahagian daripada kita, seperti badan, rumah, fikiran, perasaan, rahsia dan identiti. Hak privasi memberikan kita keupayaan untuk memilih mana bahagian dalam domain ini boleh diakses oleh orang lain, dan untuk mengawal tahap, cara dan masa penggunaan bahagian-bahagian itu, kami memilih untuk mendedahkan. [15]

Harta intelek

Harta intelek (bahasa Inggeris: intellectual property atau IP) dalam bidang undang-undang merujuk kepada hasil kreativiti manusia yang merangkumi pelbagai perkara seperti karya muzik, sastera dan seni; rekacipta; dan simbol, nama, imej dan reka bentuk yang digunakan dalam perniagaan termasuk hak cipta, cap dagangan, paten dan hak-hak lain yang berkaitan. Di bawah undang-undang harta intelek, pemegang salah satu dari harta-harta yang bersifat abstrak ini mempunyai hak-hak eksklusif tertentu untuk harta intelek yang mereka cipta.

Pembangunan harta intelek di dalam sesebuah negara akan meningkatkan tahap inovasi, ekonomi dan menganjaknya ke sebuah negara berasaskan ekonomi pengetahuan. Kekuatan undang-undang harta intelek dalam sesebuah negara juga dikenal pasti sebagai faktor penting yang mempengaruhi pelaburan dari luar terutamanya untuk bidang perniagaan yang berasaskan pengetahuan.

Hari Harta Intelek Sedunia disambut pada 26 April setiap tahun untuk meningkatkan kesedaran masyarakat awam tentang apa itu harta intelek dan bagaimana ia menggalak bukan saja perkembangan muzik, kesenian dan hiburan tetapi juga inovasi produk dan teknologi.

HARTA INTELEK DI MALAYSIA

Di Malaysia, harta intelek yang dilindungi di bawah undang-undang adalah paten, hakcipta, cap dagangan, rekabentuk perindustrian, petunjuk geografi dan reka bentuk susun atur litar bersepadu. Varieti tumbuhan adalah komponen harta intelek dan ianya ditadbir oleh Kementerian Pertanian dan Industri Asas Tani Malaysia. Antara undang-undang yang melindungi harta intelek adalah:

1. Akta Cap Dagangan 1976
2. Akta Paten 1983
3. Akta Hakcipta 1987
4. Akta Rekabentuk Ciptaan Industri 1996

Mengikut laporan agensi antarabangsa Pertubuhan Harta Intelek Sedunia (WIPO) mengenai perkembangan paten di Asia, China, Korea Selatan dan Jepun adalah negara yang berada di tempat 10 teratas sebagai negara yang paling banyak menfailkan paten. Untuk negara seperti Malaysia, terdapat penambahan 70% jumlah paten yang difailkan pada peringkat antarabangsa iaitu dari 60 ke 103 pada tahun 2007^[1].